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BAHAN AJAR
ELEKTRONIKA DASARDisusun oleh: Ahmad Fali Oklilas
PROGRAM DIPLOMA KOMPUTER UNIVERSITAS SRIWIJAY 2007
SATUAN ACARA PERKULIAHAN MATA KULIAH ELEKTRONIKA DASAR KODE / SKS : MTK224 / 2 SKSDosen Pengasuh NIP Program Studi Kelas/angkatanMinggu ke 1
: Ahamad Fali Oklilas : 132231465 : Teknik Komputer : Teknik Komputer/2006Sub Pokok Bahasan Pengantar Tujuan Instruksional Khusus Muatan Partikel Intensitas, Tegangan dan Energi Satuan eV untuk Energi Tingkat Energi Atom Struktur Elektronik dari Element Mobilitas dan Konduktivitas Elektron dan Holes Donor dan Aseptor Kerapatan Muatan Sifat Elektrik Ref.
Pokok Bahasan
Tingkat Energi Pada Zat Padat
1,2
Transport Sistem Pada Semikonduktor
Energi Atom
Prinsip Dasar Pada Zat Padat
Prinsip Semikonduktor
2
Karakteristik Dioda
Prinsip Dasar
Rangkaian terbuka p-n Junction Penyerarah pada pn Junction Sifat Volt-Ampere Sifat ketergantungan Temperatur Tahanan Dioda Kapaitas
3
Karakterisrik Dioda
Sifat Dioda
4
Karakteristik Dioda
Jenis Dioda
Switching Times Breakdown Dioda Tunnel Dioda Semiconductor Photovoltaic Effect Light Emitting Diodes Dioda sebagai elemen rangkaian Prinsip garis beban Model dioda Clipping Comparator Sampling gate Penyearah Penyearah gelombang penuh Rangkaian lainnya 1
5
Rangkaian Dioda
Dasar
6
Rangkaian Dioda
Lanjut
MID TEST/UTS7 Rangkaian Transistor Sifat Transistor Transistor Junction Komponen Transistor Transistor Sebagai Penguat (Amplifier) Konstruksi Transistor Konfigurasi Common Base Konfigurasi Common Emitor CE Cutoff CE Saturasi CE Current Gain Konfigurasi Common Kolektor Analisis Grafik Konfigurasi CE Model Two Port Device Model Hybrid Parameter h
8
Rangkaian Transistor
Sifat Transistor
9
Rangkaian Transistor
Transistor Pada Frekuensi Rendah
10
Rangkaian Transistor
Transistor Pada Frekuensi Rendah
Thevenin & Norton Emitter Follower Membandingkan Konfigurasi Amplifier Teori Miller Model Hybrid JFET Karakteristik Amper
1
11
Buku Teknik Elektronika Dasar Pdf
Rangkaian Transistor Field Effect Transistor
Transistor Pada frekuensi Tinggi Sifat Dasar
Volt
Rangkaian Dasar
FET MOSFET Voltager Variable Resitor Sebagai Osilator Sebagai Penguat Sebagai Sensor
12
Studi Kasus
Penerapan Transistor
FINAL TESTBuku Acuan : 1. Chattopadhyay, D. dkk, Dasar Elektronika, Penerbit Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta:1989. 2. Millman, Halkias, Integrated Electronics, Mc Graw Hill, Tokyo, 1988 3. http://WWW.id.wikipedia.org 4. http://www.tpub.com/content/ 5. http://www.electroniclab.com/ Palembang, 7 Feb 2007 Dosen Pengampu,
Ahmad Fali Oklilas, MT NIP. 132231465
ATURAN PERKULIAHAN ELEKTRONIKA DASAR DAFTAR HADIR MIN = 80% X 16= 14 KOMPONEN NILAI TUGAS/QUIS = 25% UTS = 30% UAS = 45% Nilai Mutlak 86 100 = 71 85 = 56 70 = 41 55 = 40 = A B C D E
Keterlambatan kehadiran dengan toleransi 15 menit Buku Acuan : 1. Chattopadhyay, D. dkk, Dasar Elektronika, Penerbit Universitas Indonesia, Jakarta:1989. 2. Millman, Halkias, Integrated Electronics, Mc Graw Hill, Tokyo, 1988 3. http://WWW.id.wikipedia.org 4. http://www.tpub.com/content/ 5. http://www.electroniclab.com/
Tingkat Energi Pada Zat Padat Electrons Energy Level The NEUTRON is a neutral particle in that it has no electrical charge. The mass of the neutron is approximately equal to that of the proton. An ELECTRONS ENERGY LEVEL is the amount of energy required by an electron to stay in orbit. Just by the electrons motion alone, it has kinetic energy. The electrons position in reference to the nucleus gives it potential energy. An energy balance keeps the electron in orbit and as it gains or loses energy, it assumes an orbit further from or closer to the center of the atom. SHELLS and SUBSHELLS are the orbits of the electrons in an atom. Each shell can contain a maximum number of electrons, which can be determined by the formula 2n 2. Shells are lettered K through Q, starting with K, which is the closest to the nucleus. The shell can also be split into four subshells labeled s, p, d, and f, which can contain 2, 6, 10, and 14 electrons, respectively.
VALENCE is the ability of an atom to combine with other atoms. The valence of an atom is determined by the number of electrons in the atoms outermost shell. This shell is referred to as the VALENCE SHELL. The electrons in the outermost shell are called VALENCE ELECTRONS.
IONIZATION is the process by which an atom loses or gains electrons. An atom that loses some of its electrons in the process becomes positively charged and is called a POSITIVE ION. An atom that has an excess number of electrons is negatively charged and is called a NEGATIVE ION. ENERGY BANDS are groups of energy levels that result from the close proximity of atoms in a solid. The three most important energy bands are the CONDUCTION BAND, FORBIDDEN BAND, and VALENCE BAND. Electrons and holes in semiconductors As pointed out before, semiconductors distinguish themselves from metals and insulators by the fact that they contain an 'almost-empty' conduction band and an 'almost-full' valence band. This also means that we will have to deal with the transport of carriers in both bands. To facilitate the discussion of the transport in the 'almost-full' valence band we will introduce the concept of holes in a semiconductor. It is important for the reader to understand that one could deal with only electrons (since these are the only real particles available in a semiconductor) if one is willing to keep track of all the electrons in the 'almost-full' valence band. The concepts of holes is introduced based on the notion that it is a whole lot easier to keep track of the missing particles in an 'almost-full' band, rather than keeping track of the actual electrons in that band. We will now first explain the concept of a hole and then point out how the hole concept simplifies the analysis. Holes are missing electrons. They behave as particles with the same properties as the electrons would have occupying the same states except that they carry a positive charge. This definition is illustrated further with the figure below which presents
the simplified energy band diagram in the presence of an electric field.
band1.gif Fig.2.2.12 Energy band diagram in the presence of a uniform electric field. Shown are electrons (red circles) which move against the field and holes (blue circles) which move in the direction of the applied field.A uniform electric field is assumed which causes a constant gradient of the conduction and valence band edges as well as a constant gradient of the vacuum level. The gradient of the vacuum level requires some further explaination since the vacuum level is associated with the potential energy of the electrons outside the semiconductor. However the gradient of the vacuum level represents the electric field within the semiconductor. The electrons in the conduction band are negatively charged particles which therefore move in a direction which opposes the direction of the field. Electrons therefore move down hill in the conduction band. Electrons in the valence band also move in the same direction. The total current due to the electrons in the valence band can therefore be written as:
(f36)
where V is the volume of the semiconductor, q is the electronic charge and v is the electron velocity. The sum is taken over all occupied or filled states in the valence band. This expression can be reformulated by first taking the sum over all the states in the valence band and subtracting the current due to the electrons which are actually missing in the valence band. This last term therefore represents the sum taken over all the empty states in the valence band, or:
(f37)The sum over all the states in the valence band has to equal zero since electrons in a completely filled band do not contribute to current, while the remaining term can be written as:
(f38)which states that the current is due to positively charged particles associated with the empty states in the valence band. We call these particles holes. Keep in mind that there is no real particle associated with a hole, but rather that the combined behavior of all the electrons which occupy states in the valence band is the same as that of positively charge particles associated with the unoccupied states. The reason the concept of holes simplifies the analysis is that the density of states function of a whole band can be rather complex. However it can be dramatically simplified if only states close to the band edge need to be considered. As illustrated by the above figure, the holes move in the direction of the field (since they are positively charged particles). They move upward in the energy band diagram similar to air bubbles in a tube filled with water which is closed on each end.
Distribution functions 1. Introduction The distribution or probability density functions describe the probability with which one can expect particles to occupy the available energy levels in a given system. While the actual derivation belongs in a course on statistical thermodynamics it is of interest to understand the initial assumptions of such derivations and therefore also the applicability of the results. The derivation starts from the basic notion that any possible distribution of particles over the available energy levels has the same probability as any other possible distribution, which can be distinguished from the first one. In addition, one takes into account the fact that the total number of particles as well as the total energy of the system has a specific value. Third, one must acknowledge the different behavior of different particles. Only one Fermion can occupy a given energy level (as described by a unique set of quantum numbers including spin). The number of bosons occupying the same energy levels is unlimited. Fermions and Bosons all 'look alike' i.e. they are indistinguishable. Maxwellian particles can be distinguished from each other. The derivation then yields the most probable distribution of particles by using the Lagrange method of indeterminate constants. One of the Lagrange constants, namely the one associated with the average energy per particle in the distribution, turns out to be a more meaningful physical variable than the total energy. This variable is called the Fermi energy, EF. An essential assumption in the derivation is that one is dealing with a very large number of particles. This assumption enables to approximate the factorial terms using the Stirling approximation.
The resulting distributions do have some peculiar characteristics, which are hard to explain. First of all the fact that a probability of occupancy can be obtained independent of whether a particular energy level exists or not. It would seem more acceptable that the distribution function does depend on the density of available states, since it determines where particles can be in the first place. The fact that the distribution function does not depend on the density of states is due to the assumption that a particular energy level is in thermal equilibrium with a large number of other particles. The nature of these particles does not need to be described further as long as their number is indeed very large. The independence of the density of states is very fortunate since it provides a single distribution function for a wide range of systems. A plot of the three distribution functions, the Fermi-Dirac distribution, the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution and the Bose-Einstein distribution is shown in the figure below, where the Fermi energy was set equal to zero.
distrib.xls - distrib.gifFig. 2.4.1 Occupancy probability versus energy of the Fermi-Dirac (red curve), the Bose-Einstein (green curve) and the Maxwell-Boltzman (blue curve) distribution.
All three distribution functions are almost equal for large energies (more than a few kT beyond the Fermi energy). The Fermi-Dirac distribution reaches a maximum of 1 for energies which are a few kT below the Fermi energy, while the Bose-Einstein distribution diverges at the Fermi energy and has no validity for energies below the Fermi energy.
2. An Example To better understand the general derivation without going through it, we now consider a system with equidistant energy levels at 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, 3.5, 4.5, 5.5, .... eV, which each can contain two electrons. The electrons are Fermions so that they are indistinguishable from each other and no more than two electrons (with opposite spin) can occupy a given energy level. This system contains 20 electrons and we arbitrarily set the total energy at 106 eV, which is 6 eV more than the minimum possible energy of this system. There are 24 possible and different configurations, which satisfy these particular constraints. Six of those configurations are shown in the figure below, where the red dots represent the electrons:
occdraw.gifFig. 2.4.2 Six of the 24 possible configurations in which 20 electrons can be placed having an energy of 106 eV.
Dasar Listrik Dan Elektronika
A complete list of the 24 configurations is shown in the table below:
fddist.xls - occtable.gifTable 2.4.1 All 24 possible configurations in which 20 electrons can be placed having an energy of 106 eV. The average occupancy of each energy level as taken over all (and equally probable) 24 configurations is compared in the figure below to the expected FermiDirac distribution function. A best fit was obtained using a Fermi energy of 9.998 eV and kT = 1.447 eV or T = 16,800 K. The agreement is surprisingly good considering the small size of this system.
fddist.xls - occprob.gif
Fig. 2.4.3 Probability versus energy averaged over the 24 possible configurations of the example (red squares) fitted with a Fermi-Dirac function (green curve) using kT = 1.447 eV and EF= 9.998 eV. 3. The Fermi-Dirac distribution function The Fermi-Dirac probability density function provides the probability that an energy level is occupied by a Fermion which is in thermal equilibrium with a large reservoir. Fermions are by definition particles with half-integer spin (1/2, 3/2, 5/2 ...). A unique characteristic of Fermions is that they obey the Pauli exclusion principle which states that only one Fermion can occupy a state which is defined by its set of quantum numbers n,k,l and s. The definition of Fermions could therefore also be particles which obey the Pauli exclusion principle. All such particles also happen to have a half-integer spin. Electrons as well as holes have a spin 1/2 and obey the Pauli exclusion principle. As these particles are added to an energy band, they will fill the available states in an energy band just like water fills a bucket. The states with the lowest energy are filled first, followed by the next higher ones. At absolute zero temperature (T = 0 K), the energy levels are all filled up to a maximum energy which we call the Fermi level. No states above the Fermi level are filled. At higher tem...